Sepsis is a major medical and economic burden to our society, affecting about 700,000 people annually in the United States, causing over 200,000 deaths annually, and costing approximately $16.7 billion per year (Angus et al., Crit Care Med 2001; 29:1303-1310; Martin et al., N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1546-1554). The definition of sepsis has been difficult, and historically it was defined as the systemic host response to an infection. A discussion of the clinical definition of sepsis, encompassing systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), sepsis per se, severe sepsis, septic shock, and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) is contained in Riedmann et al., J Clin Invest 2003; 112:460-467. Since it has been a common belief that sepsis is caused by the host's overwhelming reaction to the invading microorganisms, and that the patient is more endangered by this response that than the invading microorganisms, suppression of the immune and inflammatory responses was an early goal of therapy.
Numerous and diverse methods of immunosuppression or of neutralizing proinflammatory cytokines have proven to be unsuccessful clinically in patients with sepsis and septic shock anti-inflammatory strategies. (J Clin Invest 2003; 112:460-467; Van Amersfoort et al. (Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16:379-414), such as general immunosuppression, use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, TNF-α antibody (infliximab) or a TNF-R:Fc fusion protein (etanercept), IL-1 (interleukin-1) receptor antagonist, or high doses of corticosteroids. However, a success in the treatment of sepsis in adults was the PROWESS study (Human Activated Protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (Bernard et al., N Engl J Med 2001; 344:699-709)), showing a lower mortality (24.7%) than in the placebo group (30.8%). This activated protein C (APC) agent probably inhibits both thrombosis and inflammation, whereas fibrinolysis is fostered. Friggeri et al. (2012, Mol Med 18:825-33) reported that APC degrades histones H3 and H4, which block uptake and clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages and thereby contribute to organ system dysfunction and mortality in acute inflammatory states. Van Amersfoort et al. state, in their review (ibid.) that: “Although the blocking or modulation of a number of other targets including complement and coagulation factors, neutrophil adherence, and NO release, are promising in animals, it remains to be determined whether these therapeutic approaches will be effective in humans.” This is further emphasized in a review by Abraham, “Why immunomodulatory therapies have not worked in sepsis” (Intensive Care Med 1999; 25:556-566). In general, although many rodent models of inflammation and sepsis have shown encouraging results with diverse agents over the past decade or more, most agents translated to the clinic failed to reproduce in humans what was observed in these animal models, so that there remains a need to provide new agents that can control the complex presentations and multiple-organ involvement of various diseases involving sepsis, coagulopathy, and certain neurodegenerative conditions having inflammatory or immune dysregulatory components.
More recent work on immunoglobulins in sepsis or septic shock has been reported. For example, Toussaint and Gerlach (2012, Curr Infect Dis Rep 14:522-29) summarized the use of ivIG as an adjunct therapy in sepsis. The metanalysis failed to show any strong correlation between general immunoglobulin therapy and outcome. LaRosa and Opal (2012, Curr Infect Dis Rep 14:474-83) reported on new therapeutic agents of potential use in sepsis. Among other agents, anti-TNF antibodies are in current clinical trials for sepsis, while complement antagonists have shown promising results in preclinical models of sepsis. Nalesso et al. (2012, Curr Infect Dis Rep 14:462-73) suggested that combination therapies with multiple agents may prove more effective for sepsis treatment. The immunopathogenesis of sepsis has been summarized by Cohen (2002, Nature 420:885-91).
The immune system in sepsis is believed to have an early intense proinflammatory response after infection or trauma, leading to organ damage, but it is also believed that the innate immune system often fails to effectively kill invading microorganisms (Riedmann and Ward, Expert Opin Biol Ther 2003; 3:339-350). There have been some studies of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) in connection with sepsis that have shown some promise. For example, blockage of MIF or targeted disruption of the MIF gene significantly improved survival in a model of septic shock in mice (Calandra et al., Nature Med 2000; 6:164-170), and several lines of evidence have pointed to MIF as a potential target for therapeutic intervention in septic patients (Riedmann et al., cited above). Bucala et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,645,493 B1) have claimed that an anti-MIF antibody can be effective therapeutically for treating a condition or disease caused by cytokine-mediated toxicity, including different forms of sepsis, inflammatory diseases, acute respiratory disease syndrome, granulomatous diseases, chronic infections, transplant rejection, cachexia, asthma, viral infections, parasitic infections, malaria, and bacterial infections, which is incorporated herein in its entirety, including references. The use of anti-LPS (lipopolysaccharide) antibodies alone similarly has had mixed results in the treatment of patients with septic shock (Astiz and Rackow, Lancet 1998; 351:1501-1505; Van Amersfoort et al., Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16:379-414.
While both LPS and MIF have been pursued as targets in the treatment of sepsis and septic shock, approaches which target LPS or MIF alone by an antibody have not been sufficient to control the diverse manifestations of sepsis, especially in advanced and severe forms. Similarly, use of cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6 (interleukin-6), IL-8 (interleukin-8), etc., as targets for antibodies for the treatment of sepsis and other cytokine-mediated toxic reactions, has not proven to be sufficient for a meaningful control of this disease. Therefore, in addition to the need to discover additional targets of the cytokine cascade involved in the endogenous response in sepsis, it has now been discovered that bi- and multi-functional antibodies targeting at least one cytokine or causative agent, such as MIF or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), is advantageous, especially when combined with the binding to a host cell (or its receptor) engaged in the inflammatory or immune response, such as T cells, macrophages or dendritic cells. Antibodies against an MHC class II invariant chain target, such as CD74, have been proposed by Bucala et al. (US 2003/0013122 A1), for treating MIF-regulated diseases, and Hansen et al. (US 2004/0115193 A1) proposed at least one CD74 antibody for treating an immune dysregulation disease, an autoimmune disease, organ graft rejection, and graft-versus-host disease. Hansen et al. describe the use of fusion proteins of anti-CD74 with other antibodies reacting with antigens/receptors on host cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages for the treatment of such diseases. However, combinations with targets other than CD74 are not suggested, and the disclosure focuses on a different method of immunotherapy. Similar targets are also useful to treat atherosclerotic plaques (Burger-Kentischer et al., Circulation 2002; 105:1561-1566).
In the treatment of infectious, autoimmune, organ transplantation, inflammatory, and graft-versus-host (and other immunoregulatory) diseases, diverse and relatively non-specific cytotoxic agents are used to either kill or eliminate the noxient or microorganism, or to depress the host's immune response to a foreign graft or immunogen, or the host's production of antibodies against “self,” etc. However, these usually affect the lymphoid and other parts of the hematopoietic system, giving rise to toxic effects to the bone marrow (hematopoietic) and other normal host cells. Particularly in sepsis, where an immunosuppressed status is encountered, use of immunosuppressive therapies would be counter-indicated, so it is a goal to effect a careful balance between targeting and inhibiting key cells of the adaptive immune system while not depleting those involved with the host maintaining an active immune system.
A need exists for improved, more selective therapy of cancer and diverse immune diseases, including sepsis and septic shock, inflammation, atherosclerosis, cachexia, graft-versus-host, and other immune dysregulatory disorders.